Partitioning the Hard Disk

                                              Partitioning the Hard Disk

                 As described in the previous section, a disk must be physically formatted (low-level format), partitioned, and logically formatted (high-level format) before it can store data. The partitioning phase creates physical divisions of the disk that can be used to segment the disk and allow for two or more operating systems or the creation of multiple file systems.

Partitioning the hard disk allows you to:

• Divide the disk into logical "sub-drives" that can be addressed separately with a drive letter assigned to each, such as C:,D:, and E:
• Create separate areas on the disk for multiple operating systems, such as storing Windows and Linux on the same hard disk, each in its own partition.
• Separate program files from data files on separate disk partitions to facilitate faster and easier data backups. 

           Partitioning a hard disk can improve the disk's efficiency. For example, windows assigns                      disk clusters (logical collections of sectors) that are sized in proportion to partition size. Bigger            clusters may sound like a good thing, but just the opposite is true. Large disk drives or bigger              partitions result in bigger clusters, which unfortunately result in small unused spaces on the                 disk. By reducing the size of the disk or more smaller partitions, the result is reduced clusters                sizes.                          

                   If you wish to have only one partition on your disk, that's perfectly all right. However,                  you should know that on some systems, if you wish to use the entire  disk, you will have                      to create smaller partitions. For example, on DOS, Windows 3x, or an early release of                         Windows 95, partition sizes must be smaller than 2GB, which means that a disk larger than 2               GB  must be divided into two or more partitions if you wish to us the entire disk. Windows 98             and Windows 2000 allow you to create partitions of up to 4TB (terabytes).

                A hard disk can be divided into two types of partitions:

• Primary partitions: the primary partition contains the operating system and is usually the one from which the  PC is booted. A hard disk can be divided into a maximum of four primary partitions, but on most operating systems, only one primary partition may be active at a time.

• Extended Partitions: this type of partition can be divided into as may as 23 logical partitions, each of which can be assigned its own drive identity. Extended petitions can be used for any purpose.

Hard Disk Construction

                                              Hard Disk Construction

                 There are many different types and styles of hard disks on the market, all of which have roughly the same physical components. The differences among th different drive styles and types are usually in the components-the materials used and the way they are put togeter. But essentially one disk drive operates like all others. the major components in typical hard disk drive are as follows:

• Disk platters
• spindle and spindle motor
• Read/write heads
• Head actuators
• Air filter
• Logic board 
• Connectors and jumpers
• Bezel

         On this list, only the connectors and jumpers are accessible outside of the enclosure that houses all of the other components of the disk drive. The metal case and the components it encloses form what is called the Hard Disk assembly (HDA). The HDA is a sealed unit that is never opened. The following sections provide and overview of each of the hard disk's components.

Hard Disk Drives

                                                          Hard Disk Drives

              The hard disk is hardly a personal computer invention. The first hard disks, which first showed up in the 1950s on mainframe computers, were 20 inches in diameter and held only a few megabytes of data. Hard disks were originally called "fixed disks" and "Winchester drives" and became known as hard disks later to differentiate them from floppy disks. However, the basic technology used in the earliest hard disks has not changed all that much over the years, although the size and capacity of the drives has.

               It is the main storage device. It consists of all of the computer's item as well as documents created by using all software. It lies inside the system Board (CPU Box). Technically microcomputer hard disks are called or fixed disks, as they are a pack of disks permanently sealed inside a disk drive.

              The sealed case contains platters fixed in place, read/write heads and other part of mechanisms. It over-comes much of the danger of dust, magnetism and fingerprints interfering with the data. the read/write heads do not actually touch the surface of the disk (as floppy disk drives) but fly over it on a cushion of air.

Network Structures

                                                        Network Structures

                As indicated above, creating a network can be as simple as connecting two PCs together or connecting together thousands, even millions, or other networks. Depending on the needs of the users, a network can be quite simple or it can be very complex. There are two basic network structures:

Peer-to-peer (peer-based) networks

                 Two or more computers directly connected to one another for the sole purpose of directly sharing data and hardware resources. In the below figure, Ram and Shyam are directly connected by a cable and are able to grant permission to each other to open and use files and programs stored on their PCs and to share CD-ROM drives, printers, and other hardware. On a peer-based network, each user is responsible for the security and access of his or her PC because there is no central administrator. A peer-to-peer network is practically limited to not more than ten PCs arranged as a LAN.

Server-based (client/server) networks 

                   A network of connected computers and peripherals with a centralized server that facilitates the sharing of network data, software, and hardware resources. A client/server network typically has a central administrator that manages the permissions and access to the resources of the network. This structure is used for the majority of LANs and virtually all WANs and other network types that connect over a WAN. Any computer that requests services, such as a file, a program, or printing from the network is a client, and any computer that services the requests made to the network is a server. Depending on the request, any computer on the network can be a client for one type of request and a server for another. On a larger network, centralized computers process a variety of services for the computers connected to the network. Typically, on larger networks clients are clients and servers are servers.

Benefits of a computer networking

Benefits of a computer networking

                  Technically speaking networking can be defined as a bunch of computers that have with wires running in between them. If proper implementation of a network is done it acts as a system that provides unique capabilities, to its users. These are much beyond the abilities of individual machines and software applications associated with them.

                  The benefits networking offers to its users can be separated into two main groups i.e. sharing and connectivity. Networks make computers and their users capable of being connected together. this facilities sharing of resources and information between the users. The modern businesses are expanded all over the world. So, uses and significance of networking has gained momentum during the last years. The may benefits that networking offers to us are:

• Helps to enhance connectivity: Networks connect and link unlimited number of computers. This in turn connects the people using those computers. Individuals within a work group are connected through local area networks. Many LANs in far off locations are interconnected through larger wide area networks (WANs). These connections ease out communication between people using technologies like e-mail. today e-mail has become the easiest, and cheapest mode of transformation of information between the users.

• File sharing: Networking of computers helps the users to share data files.

• Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives, hard drives etc.

• Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows to implement client/server applications.

• User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail, newsgroups, and video conferencing etc.

• Internet: The must beautiful gift of networking is internet that is massively used by people all over the world. Whenever you are accessing Internet, you are making use of a network. The benefits of internet need no mentioning. thanks to the wonderful world of networking.

• Network gaming: Lot of games are available, which are supports multi-users.

Introduction of computer Networking

Introduction of computer Networking

             

                   In its most basic form, a network is two or more computers that are connected with a communications line for purposes of sharing resources. so, if two computers connect to each other over a telephone line or through a piece of cable or even through a wireless connection and the users are able to access ad share files and peripheral devices on the other computers, a network is formed. the individual systems must be connected through a physical pathway (called the transmission medium). All systems on the physical pathway must follow a set of common communication rules for data to arrive at its intended destination; and for the sending and receiving systems to understand each other. The rules that govern computer communication are called protocols.

Networking must have the following:

• Something to share (data)
• A physical pathway (transmission medium)
• Rules of communication (protocols)

History of the Internet

                                                    History of the Internet

                   The Internet was developed by the U.S Defense Department's Advanced Research Projects Agency in the early 1969 bearing the name ARPA wide area network (ARPANET). Motivated by the Cold War, the Department of Defense Was seeking to establish a decentralized communication network which would be more resilient to a bomb attack than the telephone system. To achieve this goal, the Department of Defense would need a robust network capable of functioning when individual nodes were crashed. That is, unlike the telephone system which could be rendered largely useless when a few key carriers were destroyed, the Internet would remain functional. As a result of these objectives, the Internet has the ability to automatically re-route the information it carries, whereas the telephone system does not.

     

                   By the late 1970's, several computer networks were using ARPANET; however, the technology did not exist to allow communication between networks. ARPANET could be utilized to establish network communication, but there did not exist a standard technology that would allow different networks to communicate with one another. Therefore, in its early form, ARPANET did not support internet work communication and was not a 'true' internet, rather, it was a system of independent networks. Initially, the Internet connected a small group of research centers located at major universities and the Department of Defense. These research centers were mainly involved in military technology projects. Use of ARPANET was soon extended to other major universities. The consequent growth and diversity of the Internet is largely related, directly of indirectly, to the research and applications of universities.

                Due to the growth in the demand for Internet usage, by the mid 1980's it was apparent that ARPANET did not have sufficient capacity to meet future needs. In 1989, ARPANET was decommissioned and replaced by a network managed by the National science Foundation (NSF). The resulting network was known as the NSFNET. Shortly after the development of the NSFNET, it again became clear that capacity was not sufficient to meet growing demand. In addition, the U.S. government realized that it could not continue to fund the Internet indefinitely Therefore, the government looked to private industry for development and funding. IBM, MERIT, and MCI formed a non-profit corporation ot fund research and development of a new wide area network backbone, the ANSNET, the capacity of which was 30 times that of NSFNET. In 1995, MCI developed a new wide area network backbone know as the very high-speed backbone network system, vBNS.

                Thus, the Internet has gone through several capacity expansions and technological  developments since its inception in the late 1960's. These developments have been driven by the demand for access and bandwidth. In addition to the scope of the Internet's expansion, it is significant that the Internet is attracting the interest and funding of the private sector rather being developed solely by the public sector.

What is Internet?

                                                           What is Internet?

               The Internet allows computers all over the world to communicate with each other and share information. It is a global network of computers. Millions of Computers around the world can share any information at a time by using this worldwide network system.

               The network consists of millions of computer networks connected together around the world. A network is a group of connected Computers each other. Each government, company and organization is responsible for maintaining sits own network. No one organization owns or controls the internet. There are no government's rules and regulation for internet and no one censors the information available in the Internet.

           

                 Two or more physical networks, connected by routers, that maintain a map of the physical networks on the Internet and forward data received from one physical network to  enter physical networks. Network users in an Internet can share information and network devices.

Windows error message "Bootmgr is missing Press Ctrl+Alt+Del to restart"

Windows error message "Bootmgr is missing Press Ctrl+Alt+Del to restart"

This error indicates that the boot sector is damaged or missing.

Use the following methods to troubleshoot this Windows Start error.

Resolution

                  Note To complete these steps, you must have a Windows 8.1, Windows 8, Windows 7 or Windows Vista installation disc. If you do not have a disc, please contact your computer manufacturer or Microsoft Support to obtain one. If you do not have an installation disc and Startup Repair is a preinstalled recovery option on your computer, try method 4.

Method 1: Run Startup Repair from Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE)

To run Startup Repair from the Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE), follow these steps:

• Insert the Windows installation disc into the disc drive, and then start the computer.
• Press a key when the message Press any key to boot from CD or DVD appears.
• If your PC does not detect the media automatically
• During the restart process, read the screen for any instructions that explain how to interrupt normal startup and enter the basic input/output system (BIOS) setup utility. Most PCs use the F2, F10, ESC, or DEL key to begin the BIOS Setup.
• Look for a tab in the BIOS Setup Utility that is labeled Boot Order, Boot Options, or Boot. Following the directions on the screen, use the arrow keys to go to the Boot Order, then press Enter.
• Locate the CD, DVD, or USB flash drive (this might be called Removable Device) in the Boot list. Following the directions on the screen, use the arrow keys to move the drive up so that it appears first in the Boot list. Press Enter. The boot order sequence is now changed to boot from the CD, DVD, or USB flash drive.
• Press F10 to save your changes and to exit the BIOS Setup Utility. Select Yes in the confirmation window. The PC will restart.
• Select a language, a time and a currency, a keyboard or input method, and then click Next.
• Click Repair your computer.
• In the System Recovery Options dialog box, select the drive of your Windows installation, and then click Next.
• At the System Recovery Options dialog box, click Repair your computer.
• Click the operating system that you want to repair, and then click Next.
• In the System Recovery Options dialog box, click Startup Repair.
• For more information about System Recovery Options, see What are the system recovery options in Windows?

For more information about Startup Repair, see Startup Repair: frequently asked questions.

Method 2: Rebuild the boot configuration data (BCD) from Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE)

• Put the Windows installation disc in the disc drive, and then start the computer.
• Press a key when the message Press any key to boot from CD or DVD appears.
• If your PC does not detect the media automatically
• During the restart process, read the screen for any instructions that explain how to interrupt normal startup and enter the basic input/output system (BIOS) setup utility. Most PCs use the F2, F10, ESC, or DEL key to begin the BIOS Setup.
• Look for a tab in the BIOS Setup Utility that is labeled Boot Order, Boot Options, or Boot. Following the directions on the screen, use the arrow keys to go to the Boot Order, then press Enter.
• Locate the CD, DVD, or USB flash drive (this might be called Removable Device) in the Boot list. Following the directions on the screen, use the arrow keys to move the drive up so that it appears first in the Boot list. Press Enter. The boot order sequence is now changed to boot from the CD, DVD, or USB flash drive.
• Press F10 to save your changes and to exit the BIOS Setup Utility. Select Yes in the confirmation window. The PC will restart. Allow the PC to restart normally. The scan will take a few minutes and remove any malware that may be infecting your computer.
• Select a language, a time, a currency, a keyboard or another input method, and then click Next.
• Click Repair your computer.
• Click the operating system that you want to repair, and then click Next.
• In the System Recovery Options dialog box, click Command Prompt.
• Type Bootrec /RebuildBcd, and then press ENTER.

For more information about how to use Bootrec.exe, see How to use the Bootrec.exe tool in the Windows Recovery Environment to troubleshoot and repair startup issues in Windows.

Method 3: Run System Restore from Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE)

Important This method requires that System Restore is enabled on your computer.

• To run System Restore from Windows Recovery Environment (WinRE), follow these steps:
• Insert the Windows installation disc into the disc drive, and then start the computer.
• Press a key when the message Press any key to boot from CD or DVD appears.
• If your PC does not detect the media automatically
• During the restart process, read the screen for any instructions that explain how to interrupt normal startup and enter the basic input/output system (BIOS) setup utility. Most PCs use the F2, F10, ESC, or DEL key to begin the BIOS Setup.
• Look for a tab in the BIOS Setup Utility that is labeled Boot Order, Boot Options, or Boot. Following the directions on the screen, use the arrow keys to go to the Boot Order, then press Enter.
• Locate the CD, DVD, or USB flash drive (this might be called Removable Device) in the Boot list. Following the directions on the screen, use the arrow keys to move the drive up so that it appears first in the Boot list. Press Enter. The boot order sequence is now changed to boot from the CD, DVD, or USB flash drive.
• Press F10 to save your changes and to exit the BIOS Setup Utility. Select Yes in the confirmation window.
• Select a language, a time and currency, and a keyboard or input method, and then click Next.
• Click Repair your computer.
• In the System Recovery Options dialog box, select the drive of your Windows installation, and then click Next.
• In the System Recovery Options dialog box, click System Restore.
• Follow the System Restore Wizard instructions and select the appropriate restore point.
• Click Finish to restore the system.
• For more information about how to use System Restore, see System Restore: frequently asked questions.
• 
  

Method 4: Use Startup Repair on a computer that has a preinstalled recovery option on your computer

Important This method is available only if Startup Repair is a preinstalled recovery option on your computer.

• If you do not have a Windows installation disc, and Startup Repair is a preinstalled recovery option on your computer, follow these steps to repair startup files:
• Remove all floppy disks, CDs, and DVDs from your computer, and then restart your computer by using the computer's power button.
• If your computer has a single operating system installed, press and hold the F8 key as your computer restarts. You have to press F8 before the Windows logo appears. If the Windows logo appears, you have to try again by waiting until the Windows logon prompt appears, and then shutting down and restarting your computer.
• If your computer has more than one operating system, use the arrow keys to highlight the operating system that you want to repair, and then press and hold F8.

• On the Advanced Boot Options screen, use the arrow keys to highlight Repair your computer, and then press Enter. (If Repair your computer isn't listed as an option, then your computer doesn't include preinstalled recovery options, or your network administrator has turned them off.)
• Select a keyboard layout, and then click Next.
• Select a user name, type the password, and then click OK.
• On the System Recovery Options menu, click Startup Repair. Startup Repair might prompt you to make choices as it tries to fix the problem and, if it is necessary, it might restart your computer as it makes repairs.

Applies to

Windows 10 Pro, released in July 2015

Windows 10 Enterprise, released in July 2015

Windows Vista Starter

Windows Vista Home Basic

Windows Vista Home Premium

Windows Vista Business

Windows Vista Enterprise

Windows Vista Ultimate

Windows 7 Starter

Windows 7 Home Basic

Windows 7 Home Premium

Windows 7 Enterprise

Windows 7 Professional

Windows 7 Ultimate

Windows 8

Windows 8 Enterprise

Windows 8 Pro

Windows 8.1

Windows 8.1 Enterprise

Windows 8.1 Pro

How to Install Windows XP professional (Service Pack 2)?

How to Install Windows XP professional (Service Pack 2)?

• Start your PC & place your widows XP CD in your CD/DVD ROM drive. (Your PC should automatically detect the CD and you will get a message saying "Press any key to boot from CD", soon as computer start booting from the CD. You will get the following screen.)

                  Set up is in inspecting your computer's hardware configuration.

• You will then get a windows XP professional setup screen. You have the option to do a new windows install, repair previous or quit. since we are doing a new install we just press enter to continue.

• You will be presented with the end user licensing agreement. Press F8 key to accept and continue.

• This step is very important. Here we will create the partition where windows will be installed. We can also delete the partition at a same time.

• Select partition 1 (C:) Drive and press Enter key.

• Choose format the partition using NTFS file system. This is the recommended file system if the hard disk has been formatted before then you can choose quick NTFS format. We choose NTFS because it offers many security features supports larger drive size, and bigger size files.

• Press Enter key windows will new start formatting Drive C: and start copying set up files on the two images: Set up is formatting and set up is copying files.

• After the set up has completed coping the files the computer will automatically restart. Leave the XP CD in the drive but this time do not press any key when the message. "Press any key boot from CD" is displayed. In few second setup will continue. Windows through the setup process of gathering information about your computer.

• Choose your region and language.

• Type in your name or organization.

• Enter your product key.

• E.g. VDDF2, JJWM3, X7p27, FRHRT, 8BVHT.

• Name the computer and enter and administrator password. Don't forget to write down your administrator password.

• Enter the correct date, time choose your time zone.

• For the network setting choose "Typical" and Press "next."

• choose work group or domain name. If you are not a member a main then leave the default setting and Press "Next".

• Finally windows will start and present you with a welcome screen.

• Click Next to continue.

• Choose help protect my PC by turning on automatic update now and Press Next.

• Select no this computer will connect directly into the internet option and Click Next.

• Ready to activate windows.

• Choose Yes if you wish to activation over the internet now. Choose know if you want to activation windows at a later stage.

• Add user that will sign on to this computer and Click on Next.

• You will get a thank you screen to conform setup complete and Click Finish.

• Login to your PC for the first time.

• You now need to check the device manager to conform that all the driver has been loaded or , if there are any conflicts.

• From the start menu.

• Select Start-settings-control panel.

• Click on the system icon and then from the system properties window select the hardware tab, then Click on device manager.

•     If there are any yellow exclamation mark "!" next to any of the listed device, it means that no drivers. or incorrect drivers has been loaded for that device. If our case we have a video controller (VGA card) which has no drivers installed.

Instilling New Printer in Windows XP

Instilling New Printer in Windows XP

• Make sure your printer is plugged in, connected to your computer, turned on, and has paper in it.
• Go to Start Button. The Start menu will appear.
• Highlight Settings. A sub menu will appear.
• Click Printers and Faxes. The Printers and Faxes control panel will appear.
• Double-click on Add Printer. The Add Printer Wizard will open.
• Follow the onscreen instructions.

• Cancel a print job
• Go to start Button. The Start menu will appear.
• Highlight Settings. A sub menu will appear.
• Click Printers and Faxes. The Printers and Faxes control panel will appear.
• Double-click the printer to which you sent the print jobs. The Printer window will open.
• Click the job you want to stop. If you want to stop more than one job, hold down the Control key while you click the additional jobs.
• Click Document, which is located on the menu bar.
• Click Cancel. If you want to delete all print jobs, click Cancel All Documents.

Features of Windows 7

Features of Windows 7

Speed

                  Even aside from incompatibilities and other issues that many people had with Vista, one of the most straightforward was speed- it just felt too sluggish compared to XP, even on pumped up hardware. Windows 7 brings a more responsive and sprightly fell and Microsoft has spent a lot of time and effort getting the Start Menu response just right.

                 Microsoft has also recognized the need for improved desktop responsiveness, which gives the impression that the computer is responding to the user and that they are in control- something that was often lacking with Vista.

      

                You can also expect faster boot times. And the boot sequence is now not only prettier than it was with Vista, but it's speedier too.

Compatibility

               In simple terms, compatibility on Windows 7 will be far better than it was with Vista. Many programs that individuals and companies used on Windows XP did not work immediately and required updates, but with Windows 7 almost all applications that work on Vista should still run.

              In essence, windows Vista has done most of the hard work for Windows 7 in this respect.

Lower hardware requirements

              Vista gained a reputation for for making even the beefiest hardware look rather ordinary. Windows 7, however, will run well on lower end hardware, making the transition from Window XP less painful. Microsoft is even pushing Windows 7 for netbooks. This could provide a modern replacement for windows XP, which has found a new lease of life as the OS of choice on netbooks, supplanting Linux. The downside is that Windows 7 Starter Edition, as it will be called, will be limited to only three applications running at the same time.

Search and organization

               One of the best things about Windows 7 is the improved search tool, which now rivals Mac OS X's spotlight to be able to find what you need quickly and easily. Flr example, typing 'mouse' will bring up the mouse option within the control panel or typing a word will display it and split it up neatly into files, folders and applications.

               Also introduced is the concept of Libraries, which takes the 'My Documents' concept a stage further. The various Libraries, such as Documents and pictures, will watch multiple locations which you can add yourself, so you don't have to keep everything in one place.

Task Bar/Start menu

               At first glance, the task bar looks like nothing has much has changed since Vista. In fact, that's not the case and it's a lot more powerful. Microsoft is now making best use of its aero technology. By default, task bar icons are now larger and items are grouped together and are not labeled with clumsy text. If you have multiple Word documents or Windows Explorer windows open then you'll see a sake appear on the task bar. Hover the mouse over the app and each window will be visible in a thumbnail. Hover over each thumbnail and it will become visible, while all other open windows temporarily disappear, save for their outlines. You can close each document or Window down from the thumbnail directly or click on it to bring it to the front.

VGA Install Driver

VGA Install Driver

• Right click on My computer.

• Click on properties.

• Click on hardware.

• Click on Device manager.

• Right click on video controller.

• Click on update driver.

            A) Install the software automatically.
            B) Install from for a list.

•  C) Choose option (B).

• Click on next.

• Click on don't search.

• Click on Next.

• Click on display adapter.

• Click on Next.

• Then burn process will be start.

             OR,

• Choose CD ROM.
• Select VGA,
• Click on open Install Intel.
• Choose chip set number.
• E.g. 945/845/865/ etc.
• Choose operating system.
• Select graphic.
• Choose operating system folder.
• Select any one files and open It.
• Press OK button.

         OR,

• 
  
• Click on start button.
• Click on setting.
• Click on control panel.
• Click on add hardware.
• Click on tick mark.

              I have already install

• Click on Next.
• Choose video controller.
• Click on Next.
• Click on Finish.

        OR,

• Open the My computer.
• Open VGA,
• Choose chip set number.
• Choose operating system.
• Double click on set up icon.
• Click on next.
• Again click on Next.
• Click on finish.
• Click on Yes to restart.